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436 Air Transport and the Environment of CO2 and H2O per passenger kilometer traveled have decreased significantly over the past decades, primarily as a result of increases in fuel efficiency. Conversely, emissions of NOx, which tend to increase with increasing fuel efficiency, have not changed as significantly. Reducing NOx poses challenging technological problems. There are several emerging concerns regarding noise and emissions. Low-frequency aviation-related noise is blamed for structural “rattling” and there is also some evidence that it could have adverse health effects. But the links are not clear and more research is needed to establish a clear relationship between low-frequency noise and possible adverse health effects. It has also been suggested that interdependencies between noise and emissions impacts on health may mean that the total adverse health impact of aviation is larger than currently assumed (Schwela et al., 2005). For example, both noise and emissions may have an impact on cardiovascular health. Hazardous air pollutants (HAPS) are chemicals that have severe health and environ- mental effects. Which HAPS are included in aircraft exhaust and to what degree are the subjects of ongoing research. Aviation is now also known to have an impact on global climate change. However, how much aviation contributes to the total anthropogenic effect, and what the best approaches to limit aviation’s impact would be, are not clear. The reduction of noise and the reduction of emissions are goals that also pose inter- esting policy questions. Noise and emissions impacts result from an interdependent set of technologies and operations, so that action to address impacts in one domain can have negative impacts in other domains (Waitz et al., 2005). For example, both operational and technological measures to reduce noise can result in greater fuel burn, thus increasing avi- ation’s impact on climate change and local air quality (SBAC, 2001). Interdependencies among emissions make it difficult to reduce environmental impacts by modifying engine design, because they force a trade-off among individual pollutants as well as between emissions and noise (FAA, 2005). To date, interdependencies among various policy, tech- nological and operational options and the full economic consequences of these options have not been appropriately assessed; however, the FAA and other international organi- zations are actively pursuing the development of tools


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